Review of strategies to reduce the contamination of the water environment by gadolinium-based contrast agents

Dekker, Helena M.; Stroomberg, Gerard J.; Van der Molen, Aart J.; Prokop, Mathias

doi:10.1186/s13244-024-01626-7

Insights into Imaging

Table 1 Reported GBCA contamination of the aquatic environmental compartments

From: Review of strategies to reduce the contamination of the water environment by gadolinium-based contrast agents

Region	Locality	Type	Amount	Unit	Remarks	Reference
Wastewater
Europe	Germany (whole)	Gd anomaly	484–1160	Kg/year	Estimated the total annual emission from hospitals	[25]
River water
Asia	Tokyo area	Gd anomaly			5–6.6 increase over a period of 22 years	[26]
Europe	Dutch Rhine-Meuse delta	Gd anomaly	Varying concentrations		Gd mainly present in the dissolved (complexed) phase	[22]
Europe	Polish river Nida	Gd anomaly			Wastewater treatment plants as the source	[27]
Europe	German river Ems	Gd anomaly			Wastewater treatment plants as the source	[24]
Europe	Rhine River at Dutch-German border	Gadobutrol (Gd-BT-DO3A)	0.40 (avg)/0.70 (max)	ug/L	Annual (2020) averages and maximum concentrations, accounts for total Gd anomaly	[28]
		Gadoterate (Gd-DOTA)	0.43 (avg)/0.68 (max)	ug/L
		Gadopentetate (Gd-DTPA)	Not detected
		Gadobenate (Gd-BOPTA)	Not detected
		Gadoteridol (Gd-HP-DO3A)	Detected, not quant
Sea water
North America	San Francisco Bay area and NE Pacific coast	Gd anomaly			tenfold increase between 1993 and 2013 associated with wastewater treatment plants	[29]
Pacific	Kona coast of Hawaii	Gd anomaly			Treated wastewater from Kealakehe WWTP	[30]
Europe	Atlantic Ocean	Medical Gd	5.3	Tonnes/year	Influx from European rivers	[31]
Europe	Black Sea	Medical Gd	3.0	Tonnes/year	Influx from European rivers	[31]
Europe	Mediterranean Sea	Medical Gd	2.9	Tonnes/year	Influx from European rivers	[31]
Europe	Baltic Sea	Medical Gd	1.1	Tonnes/year	Influx from European rivers	[31]
Sediment
North America	Orlando Easterly Wetlands	Anthropogenic Gd	422–555	ng/L	From treated wastewater	[32]
Europe	Netherlands	Gd anomaly			Infiltrated surface water	[22]
Drinking water
Europe	Germany, 6 major cities	Anthropogenic Gd			In “post-mix soda fountains” of major fast food restaurant franchises	[33]
Europe	Poland, 4 major cities	Anthropogenic Gd			Drinking water sourced from surface water influenced by wastewater treatment plants	[34]

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