Table 1 Summary of reconstruction techniques for 2D cine CMRI

Tsao et al. [59]

Multi-BH

k-t BLAST, k-t SENSE

Model-based method exploiting data correlations to recover unacquired samples. Cartesian sampling

4-fold acceleration. Spatial res., 2.42 × 2.52 mm² (slice thickness 10 mm). Temporal res., 26 ms

Huang et al. [60]

Multi-BH

k-t GRAPPA

GRAPPA combined with sliding window techniques for missing data interpolation. Cartesian sampling

AF = 7. Reduction factor, 5.17. Spatial res., 1.77 × 1.82 mm² (slice thickness, 6 mm). Number of phases, 14. Reconstruction time, 4 s per frame

Lustig et al. [61]

Multi-BH

k-t SPARSE

CS-based method exploiting spatial and temporal sparsity of data. Cartesian sampling

7-fold frame-rate acceleration. Spatial res., 2.5 × 2.5 mm² (slice thickness, 9 mm). Temporal res., 40 ms. Reconstruction time, 1 h per 64 × 64 × 64 scene

Jung et al. [62]

Multi-BH

k-t FOCUSS

CS method with ME-MC based on block matching. Cartesian sampling

AF = 6. Spatial res., 1.25 × 1.17 mm2 (slice thickness, 5 mm). 25 cardiac phases

Pedersen et al. [63]

Multi-BH

k-t PCA

Generalization of k-t BLAST/SENSE using PCA temporal constraint. Cartesian sampling

Myocardial perfusion images acquired in a pig. 8-fold acceleration. Spatial res., 1.25 × 1.25 mm² (slice thickness, 10 mm). 64 frames

Christodoulou et al. [64]

Multi-BH

PSF

Partially separable function reconstruction with anatomical constraints

Data of rat hearts. Spatial res., 390 μm in-plane (slice thickness, 1.5 mm). Temporal res., 15 ms

Lingala et al. [65]

Multi-BH

k-t SLR

Low-rank structure using KLT to exploit the sparsity. Cartesian sampling

Cardiac perfusion MRI data. AF = 11. Matrix size, 90 × 190

Hansen et al. [66]

FB real-time

–

Temporal multi-resolution scheme combining PI with MC based on nonrigid registration. Cartesian and golden-angle radial sampling

2-fold PI acceleration. Spatial res., 1.4–1.5 × 1.9–2 mm² (Cartesian), 1.4–1.5 × 1.4–1.5 mm² (golden angle radial), slice thickness, 6 mm. Temporal res., 30 ms

Asif et al. [67]

Multi-BH

MASTER

CS with ME-MC based on motion-adaptive spatio-temporal regularization. Cartesian sampling

Retrospective downsampling with reduction factor up to 10. Spatial res., 1.56 × 1.37 mm² (slice thickness, 12 mm). 16 cardiac phases

Feng et al. [68]

FB real-time

k-t SPARSE

SENSE

Combination of CS and PI for real-time imaging. Cartesian sampling

8-fold acceleration. Spatial res., 2.3 × 2.3 mm² (slice thickness, 8 mm). Temporal res., 43.2 ms. Offline reconstruction time, 4.6 min per slice

Usman et al. [69]

FB

MC-CS

Generalized MC in CS reconstruction. Respiratory motion self-gating by low resolution virtual 2D navigator images. Golden angle radial sampling

AF = 4–6. Spatial res., 1.5–2 × 1.5–2 mm². 20 cardiac phases. Temporal res., 30–40 ms. Reconstruction time, 2–2.5 h.

Xue et al. [70]

FB real-time

–

SPIRiT non-linear reconstruction with spatial-temporal regularization (Harr wavelet transformation) and ME-MC based on non-rigid registration. Cartesian time-interleaved sampling

Scan time, 16–20 s per acquired slice. PI reduction factor of R = 4. Spatial res., 1.3–1.8 × 1.8–2.1 mm² (slice thickness, 8 mm). 30 cardiac phases. Temporal res., 34.3 ± 9.1 ms. Inline reconstruction time (Gadgetron), 80–120 s per slice

Schmidt et al. [71]

FB real-time

rtCS11

Real-time CS-based reconstruction with k-t regularization. Cartesian sampling

Scan time, 1 heartbeat. AF = 10.9. Spatial res., 1.7 × 1.7 mm² (slice thickness, 6 mm). Temporal res., 30 ms. Online reconstruction

Trémoulhéac et al. [72]

Multi-BH

k-t RPCA

L+S decomposition based on RPCA with temporal FT. Variable density Cartesian and pseudo-radial sampling

AF = 8. Matrix size, 128 × 128 (90 frames). Reconstruction time, 10 min

Wang et al. [73]

Multi-BH

–

CS-based reconstruction with DL. Retrospective Cartesian undersampling

AF up to 8. Matrix size, 150–256 × 256–304 (14–26 frames). Reconstruction time, 11.3–24.3 min

Vincenti et al. [74]

Single-BH

–

CS-based method with Cartesian acquisition

AF = 11. 3 long-axis and 4 short-axis views. Spatial res., 1.5 × 1.5 mm² (slice thickness, 6 mm). 24 cardiac phases. Temporal res., 30 ms. BH duration, 14 s

Royuela-del Val et al. [75]

Single-BH

kt-WiSE

MC-CS based on GW registration with SENSE. Golden angle radial sampling

AF = 16. Spatial res., 2 × 2 mm², (slice thickness, 8 mm, 12 slices). 16 cardiac phases Temporal res., 46.4 ms. BH duration, 11.1 s

Velikina et al. [76]

Multi-BH

MOCCO

Pre-estimated low-rank temporal signal models. Variable density Cartesian sampling

AF up to 15. Spatial res., 1 × 1.7 mm² (26 and 30 cardiac phases)

Otazo et al. [44]

Multi-BH

–

L+S reconstruction. Cartesian sampling for cardiac cine. Radial sampling for abdominal and breast DCE-MRI

8-fold acceleration. Spatial res., 1.25 × 1.25 mm² (slice thickness, 8 mm). 24 temporal frames

Poddar and Jacob [77]

FB real-time

SToRM

Manifold smoothness regularized reconstruction with radial sampling

Scan time, 42 s per slice. Spatial res., 1.17 × 1.17 mm², (slice thickness, 5 mm, 5 slices). Temporal res., 42 ms. Reconstruction time, 24 min (l2-SToRM) and 4.9 h (l1-SToRM)

Royuela-del Val et al. [78]

Multi-BH

GW-CS

CS method with ME-MC based on non-rigid GW registration and Cartesian sampling

AF up to 12. Spatial res., 2 × 2 mm² (slice thickness, 8 mm). 16 cardiac phases

Miao et al. [79]

Single-BH

LLR + FD

Locally low rank with temporal finite difference and PI using golden-angle radial sampling

AF = 19–23. Spatial res., 2 × 2 mm², (slice thickness, 8 mm, 12 SA slices). Temporal res., 40 ms (19–20 time frames). BH duration, 9–13 s

Feng et al. [80]

FB

XD-GRASP

CS-based reconstruction of extra cardio-respiratory motion states. Continuous acquisition with golden-angle trajectory

Scan time, 20 s per slice. AF = 16. Spatial res., 2 × 2 mm², (slice thickness, 8 mm, 3 SA + 1 4CH slices). Temporal res., 45 ms. 18–26 cardiac phases and 10–16 respiratory phases

Chen et al. [81]

FB real-time

–

Parallel online reconstruction using dTV and accelerated reweighted least squares algorithm. Radial sampling

Matrix size, 256 × 256 × 24. Reconstruction time, 33.1 s

Royuela-del Val et al. [82]

Multi-BH

JW-tTV

CS-MC method using Jacobian weighted temporal TV as sparse regularization term. Cartesian sampling

AF = 12. FOV = 320 × 320 mm², (slice thickness, 8 mm). 30 cardiac phases

Mohsin et al. [83]

Multi-BH

PRICE

Implicit inter-frame MC based on patch smoothness regularization. Cartesian sampling

Scan time, two heartbeats per slice. AF = 6. Spatial res., 2.5 × 2.5 mm². 1 slice, 20 temporal frames (16 lines per frame). Reconstruction time, 7 min

Chen et al. [84]

Multi-BH

–

L+S method. RPCA inverse problem solved by IALM. Cartesian and pseudo-radial sampling

AF = 6. Spatial res., 1.25 × 1.25 mm², (slice thickness, 10 mm). 1 slice, 30 temporal frames. Reconstruction time, 2–2.2 min

Xu et al. [85]

Multi-BH

G-NADM, L-NADM

L+S method with NADM for nonconvex RPCA

Matrix size, 256 × 256. 1 slice, 24 temporal frames. Reconstruction time, 3–3.3 min

Roohi et al. [86]

Multi-BH

k-t MLSD

Multi-dimensional L+S decomposition method. Cartesian and radial sampling

Sampling rate, 0.25. Spatial res., 1.35 × 1.05 mm², (slice thickness, 10 mm). 25 temporal frames (66 bpm). Reconstruction time, 26.64 s per slice

Royuela-del Val et al. [87]

Single-BH

JW-tTV-GR

Adaptation of JW-tTV to golden radial acquisition pattern. Whole-heart coverage

AF = 16. 12–14 SA slices. Spatial res., 2 × 2 mm² (slice thickness, 8 mm). 13–16 cardiac phases. Temporal res., 46.4 ms. BH duration, 10–13 s

Wang et al. [88]

FB real-time

PDLDTV

Parallel DicL and dTV method using a primal-dual algorithm. Radial sampling

Sampling rate, 70% 1st frame, 15% rest. Matrix size, 256 × 256, 24 temporal frames. Reconstruction time, 2 min

Tolouee et al. [89]

Multi-BH

–

L+S method with MC based on a deformable registration method. Cartesian sampling

AF = 12. Spatial res., 1.35 × 1.05 mm², (slice thickness, 10 mm). Temporal res., 25 ms

Li et al. [90]

FB real-time

–

k-space variant reduced-FOV reconstruction. Radial sampling

Spatial res., 1.7 mm², (slice thickness, 8 mm). Temporal res., 40 ms. Reconstruction time, 2 s per frame